• Moses as the Author
• • Support for Moses as author
  • • References in Torah to Moses as author (e.g., Deut. 31:9-11)
    • References in rest of Hebrew Bible to Moses as author (e.g., Mal. 4:4)
    • References in New Testament to Moses as author (e.g., Mark 12:19)
    • Jewish and Christian tradition support Moses as author (e.g., Josephus, Talmud)
  • Objections raised to Moses as author
  • • Torah has no direct evidence of authorship - it is not "autographed"
    • Different styles of writing are present - repetitive style of Gen. 17 is much different from dynamic style of Gen. 15 (both passages concern the covenant God made with Abraham)
    • Use of names and facts from later times (e.g., "land of the Philistines" in Gen. 21:32, "before any king reigned over the Israelites" in Gen. 36:31) - such references at least imply the Torah was edited at a later date
    • Repetitions of the same story (e.g., Abraham passing off his wife Sarah as his sister twice [Gen. 12, 20] and Isaac passing his wife Rebekah off as his sister [Gen. 26], the Ten Commandments occurring twice [Exod. 20, Deut. 5])
    • Use of different names for the same place (e.g., Mt. Sinai and Mt. Horeb) and for the same people (e.g., Jethro and Reuel)
    • Variations in stories such as the creation accounts (Gen. 1, 2 - Are humans created after or before animals? Does God speak into existence or mold clay?) and within the flood story (Gen 6-9 - How many pairs of clean animals are there?)
    • Use of different names for God
    • Account of the death of Moses (Deut. 34)
    • Use of third person to refer to Moses
    • Authorship in ancient times referred more to authority than to those who did the actual writing
  • Those who support Moses as author often suggest Moses was the dominant author and that following his death Joshua or Samuel or both edited and completed Moses' writing
• Documentary Hypothesis
• • History
  • • Clement of Rome objected to some of the stories in the Torah, such as the story of Noah's drunkenness, and claimed that another person had written such stories
    • Ibn Ezra (1089-1164) believed the Torah contained material that had originated in a variety of times but had been pulled together at a later date

• • • John Calvin, Baruch Spinoza, and others believed that various traditions which sometimes contradicted one another were obvious in the Torah
    • H. B. Witter in 1711 and Jean Astruc in 1753 put forward evidence to support the conclusions of earlier scholars using Gen. 1 and 2-3 which had different styles and used different names for God
    • Julius Wellhausen
    • • Gathered the work of those who had gone before him and presented it in a coherent whole
      • Four documents and relative dates of composition
      • • J - Yahwist (850 B.C.E.)
        • E - Elohist (ca. 700 B.C.E.)
        • D - Deuteronomic (ca. 623 B.C.E.)
        • P - Priestly (500-450 B.C.E.)
      • These four documents had gradually been merged to form the Torah
      • He believed it was fairly easy to divide the Torah into these four documents
    • Tradition history or tradition analysis
    • • There are not four documents but four streams of tradition
      • These tradition groups gathered accounts and traditions at certain times to encourage Israel to repent and renew its commitment to God
      • The accounts used by the tradition groups came from many sources and collections
      • Thus many individuals were involved in the writing of the Torah
  • The four documents
  • • Yahwist (J)
    • • Written during the "Solomonic Enlightenment" (ca. 950 B.C.E.)
      • Under David and Solomon, the promises God made to Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3) had come true
      • Would success cause the people to forget God?
      • The writer collected accounts and traditions to teach his nation not to be overcome by success, wealth, and power but to avoid temptation and obey God
      • The story of Adam and Eve is a perfect example (Gen. 2-3)
      • Characteristics
      • • Name used for God - "YHWH" (even before Exod. 3:14 when God gives His name to Moses)
        • Style - great storyteller, often speaks of God in anthropomorphic (human) terms
        • Theology - "Israel must be a blessing to the nations" (Gen. 12:1-3)
        • Examples - Gen. 2, 3, 4
    • Elohist (E)
    • • Written in the north some time in 8^th or 7^th centuries B.C.E.
      • Some scholars believe it was never an independent document but rather a series of add-ons to J - others believe E was a reworking of J to make J acceptable to Israel (the northern kingdom)
      • Why is E a northern document?
      • • Uses terms favored in the North (e.g., Amorites instead of Canaanites, Horeb instead of Sinai)
        • Plays down the role of Moses or leaders and stresses people
        • Pays more attention to Jacob (Israel) than Abraham
        • God is more distant and communicates with people through dreams and angels
        • Emphasis on prophets (Gen. 20:7)
      • Even as the prophets called Israel back to obeying the unseen God who demanded their exclusive worship, so did the Elohist document
      • Characteristics
      • • Name used for God - "Elohim" until Exod. 3:14 and then "YHWH"
        • Style - God speaks through dreams, angels, etc.; God instructs people by testing them
        • Theology - "fear God" (e.g., Gen. 22:15, Exod. 1:17,21)
        • Examples - Gen. 22, Exod. 20
    • Deuteronomist (D)
    • • 700 - 621 B.C.E.
      • Based on a legal tradition that flourished in the north until the Assyrians conquered Israel - the tradition then moved to the south
      • Core of the tradition is Deut. 12-26, "the Book of the Law" found in the Temple during Josiah's reform (perhaps)
      • The law was presented as a final speech by Moses before the people entered the Promised Land
      • Intent was to bring people back to the law and to emphasize clearly the penalties for disobeying God
      • Became the basis for the Deuteronomic History which encompasses Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings
      • Characteristics
      • • Name used for God - "YHWH" since the document is basically Deuteronomy which is after Exod. 3:14
        • Style - uses distinctive phrases like "a mighty hand and a stretched out arm" and "if you turn aside to walk after other gods and worship them;" emphasizes one sanctuary, a pure cult, and that a decision is required today
        • Theology - one people must serve one God, honor one law, and worship in one temple
        • Examples - Book of Deuteronomy
    • Priestly Writer (P)
    • • 550-450 B.C.E.
      • Composed in Babylon or after the return from exile in Babylon
      • Effort was to preserve the traditions, fight Babylonian theology, rekindle hope among the Jews, and encourage rebuilding
      • As an example, Gen. 1:1-2:4a gave hope that out of the chaos of exile God could create order and purpose for His people and that through practices like keeping the Sabbath the Jews could proclaim their faith - in the same way the stories of Noah and the exodus were stories of new beginnings provided by God
      • Laws provided the way to recover their purity and create a structure for their lives
      • Characteristics
      • • Name used for God - "Elohim" and "El Shaddai" before Exod. 3:14 and then "YHWH"
        • Style - precise, formal; lists and genealogies; God is above all (transcendent)
        • Theology - "be fruitful, multiply, fill the earth, subdue, have dominion" (Gen. 1:28)
        • Examples - Gen. 1, 5, 17
  • Criticism of the theory
  • • Denies inspiration of the Hebrew Bible to many since the Hebrew Bible would be wrong concerning authorship
    • Circular argument - certain vocabulary and traditions are typical of one document, thus when we find that vocabulary and those traditions we have part of that document, which strengthens the claim that the document exists
    • Difficult to separate the Torah into these four documents
    • No references to groups who collected and/or interpreted history
    • No external evidence for the documents

Artwork by Michelangelo from the Sistine Chapel