Prophecy understood as inspired speech at the initiative of a divine
power, speech which is clear in itself and directed typically to a third party
Syria-Palestine
Ebla - texts from the mid 3rd millennium B.C.E. have been cited as prophetic but not
substantiated as so
Ugarit
Announcements of future blessings
References to technical divination
No evidence yet for a divinely commissioned messenger
Phoenicia
Bible has many references to prophets of Ba'al and Asherah
Bible uses nabi' to speak of them as well
Wen-Amun in Byblos (ca. 1090 B.C.E.) - an attendant of a Phoenician
prince became ecstatic and authenticated Wen-Amun's mission from the god Amun
At one time, many scholars argued that Israelite prophecy developed
from Canaanite prophecy
Aram - one classic salvation oracle in response to a king's petition
(ca. 800 B.C.E.)
Ammon
Plaster inscription from ca. 700 B.C.E. refers to Balaam, son of
Beor, as a "visionary of the gods"
He saw a vision in the night and obtained a rather enigmatic
revelation from some numinous beings
Reinforced by Num. 24:4-5
Anatolia
14th century B.C.E. texts
Reference to how deities communicate with humanity
Lists dreams, incubations, liver divination, and a man or woman of
god
Mesopotamia
General notes
Usually prophecies are ex eventu; i.e., cast as predictions
although the event prophesied had already occurred
Allied with omen literature
May take form of first person speeches of deity or divinized king
Some texts are more akin to apocalyptic
Revelatory intermediaries are not involved
Uruk
Text from ca. 1850 B.C.E.
Visit to an unnamed person by a deity who speaks of the future of
Uruk and its ruler
Person responds to deity and reports to king
Mari
General
Many references to prophetic activity, using variety of titles
More than 12 deities involved
More than 18 named prophets and many others not named
Both male and female prophets
Those with cultic titles are usually male (4/5) - those without are
about equally divided between men and women
To many scholars the prophets of Mari provide the closest parallel to
the prophets of Israel
Prophets with titles
Generally associated with particular deities but can speak for other
deities
Frequently are given, and sometimes ask for, garments or other items
from the royal storehouse - indicates they had some sort of official status
Titles
Apilu/apiltu - "answerer" - both men and women -
usually supply answer to a specific inquiry - official standing - are able to travel about
Assinnu - "cult functionary" - two mentioned - one
speaks in ecstasy, other lives in ruins of an abandoned sanctuary
Muhhu/muhhutu - "ecstatic" - most common prophetic
title at Mari - may use self-wounding or watered-down beer - sometimes associated with
offering of sacrifices
Nabu - "diviner" - using omens
Qam(m)atum - not sure of meaning - refers to a prophetess
with a particular hairstyle
Prophets without titles
A few more women than men
Most revelations derive from dreams
Typically receive revelation in a temple
Context of oracles
Typically in a temple - either real or in a dream
Often in response to a sacrifice
Usually communicated to a royal official
Many oracles are public with some before the council of elders
In times of political and personal (royal) crisis
Initiatives prophets can take are striking
Content of oracles
Deal almost exclusively with king's affairs
Often communicated as deity speaking in first person
Prophets sometimes state they are sent by the deity
Sometimes use "messenger formula" - "thus says [the
deity]"
Usually is an assurance to the king or a warning
At least one oracle is directed to the inhabitants of a city (Tequa)
Cultic requests are prominent
Status of oracles
Prophecy recognized as one channel of divine communication among
others
Often sent a lock of the prophet's hair or a piece of the fringe of
his garment to confirm the words as the prophet's
Assyria
General remarks
Esarhaddon (680-669 B.C.E.) and Ashurbanipal (668-627 B.C.E.) were
especially interested in the methods of communicating with the divine
Prophets were one method
Prophets with titles
Mahhu/mahhutu - "ecstatic" - sometimes associated
with dreams - we have no verbatim messages - has a role in some rituals
Raggimu/raggimtu - "proclaimer" - had status
within cult
Sabru - "revealer" - receives a message-dream
through incubation
Selutu - "(female) votary" - a woman devoted by
the king to a deity
Prophets without titles
Lack an official position in the cult
About equal numbers of men and women
Typically associated with Ishtar of Arbela
Context of the oracles
A crisis situation (major or minor) leads to a complaint or inquiry
to a deity who then answers with words of reassurance
Communication may be oral or written
Sometimes oracle received in a temple, occasionally associated with
sacrifices - at other times received in a political assembly
Some oracles were unsolicited but most were responses to an inquiry
Content of oracles
Typically assure king concerning political and succession concerns
Communicated directly from the deity
"Fear not" is a typical phrase from the deity
Oracles emphasize the deity's power and reliability
Rarely admonish the king - when they do, it is only mild
Status of oracles
Reported individually to king, noted in official records and
collected into cumulative records
Sometimes oracles grouped by deity involved - one collection seems to
be of oracles of a particular "proclaimer"
Some evidence for the copying and transmission of oracle collections
Egypt
Typically foretelling a future deliverance
Texts more closely related to wisdom - draw on past to anticipate the
future
Very little known that shows prophet as an inspired speaker of divine
oracles